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Mechanistically, DCA dose-dependently promoted M1 macrophage polarization and pro-inflammatory cytokines production at least partially through toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) transactivated by M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M2-mAchR)/Src pathway. In addition, M2-mAchR mediated increase of TLR2 transcription was mainly achieved via targeting AP-1 transcription factor. Moreover, NF-κB/ERK/JNK signalings downstream of TLR2 are involved in the DCA-induced macrophage polarization. In conclusion, our findings revealed that high level DCA i