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MalaEx were found to induce a significant up-regulation of ICAM-1 expression on primary human keratinocytes isolated from human ex vivo skin (p = 0.026, n = 3), compared to the unstimulated keratinocytes. ICAM-1 is a counter ligand for the leukocyte integrins lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and macrophage-1 antigen (Mac-1), of which induced expression on epithelial cells leads to the attraction of immune competent cells. Thus, the capacity of MalaEx to activate keratinocytes with an enhanced ICAM-1 expression indicates a